Information systems

Not to be confused with Information system.

Information Systems (IS) is an academic/professional discipline bridging the business field and the well-defined computer science field that is evolving toward a new scientific area of study.[4][5][6][7] An information systems discipline therefore is supported by the theoretical foundations of information and computations such that learned scholars have unique opportunities to explore the academics of various business models as well as related algorithmic processes within a computer science discipline.[8][9][10] Typically, information systems or the more common legacy information systems include people, procedures, data, software, and hardware (by degree) that are used to gather and analyze digital information.[11][12] Specifically computer-based information systems are complementary networks of hardware/software that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create, & distribute data (computing).[13] Computer Information System(s) (CIS) is often a track within the computer science field studying computers and algorithmic processes, including their principles, their software & hardware designs, their applications, and their impact on society.[14][15][16] Overall, an IS discipline emphasizes functionality over design.[17]

As illustrated by the Venn Diagram on the right, the history of information systems coincides with the history of computer science that began long before the modern discipline of computer science emerged in the twentieth century.[18] Regarding the circulation of information and ideas, numerous legacy information systems still exist today that are continuously updated to promote ethnographic approaches, to ensure data integrity, and to improve the social effectiveness & efficiency of the whole process.[19] In general, information systems are focused upon processing information within organizations, especially within business enterprises, and sharing the benefits with modern society.[20]

Contents

Overview

Silver et al. (1995) provided two views on (IS) and IS-centered view that includes software, hardware, data, people, and procedures. A second managerial view includes people, business processes and Information Systems.

There are various types of information systems, for example: transaction processing systems, office systems, decision support systems, knowledge management systems, database management systems, and office information systems. Critical to most information systems are information technologies, which are typically designed to enable humans to perform tasks for which the human brain is not well suited, such as: handling large amounts of information, performing complex calculations, and controlling many simultaneous processes.

Information technologies are a very important and malleable resource available to executives.[21] Many companies have created a position of Chief Information Officer (CIO) that sits on the executive board with the Chief Executive Officer (CEO), Chief Financial Officer (CFO), Chief Operating Officer (COO) and Chief Technical Officer (CTO).The CTO may also serve as CIO, and vice versa. The Chief Information Security Officer (CISO) focuses on information security management.

Definition

Silver et al.[22] defined Information Systems as follows:

Information systems are implemented within an organization for the purpose of improving the effectiveness and efficiency of that organization. Capabilities of the information system and characteristics of the organization, its work systems, its people, and its development and implementation methodologies together determine the extent to which that purpose is achieved.

The Discipline of Information Systems

Several IS scholars have debated the nature and foundations of Information Systems which has its roots in other reference disciplines such as Computer Science, Engineering, Mathematics, Management Science, Cybernetics, and others.[23][24][25][26]. Information systems also can be define as a collection of hardware, software, data, people and procedures that work together to produce quality information.

The Impact on Economic Models

Differentiating IS from Related Disciplines

Similar to computer science, other disciplines can be seen as both related disciplines and foundation disciplines of IS. The domain of study of IS involves the study of theories and practices related to the social and technological phenomena, which determine the development, use and effects of information systems in organizations and society. [27] But, while there may be considerable overlap of the disciplines at the boundaries, the disciplines are still differentiated by the focus, purpose and orientation of their activities.[28]

In a broad scope, the term Information Systems (IS) is a scientific field of study that addresses the range of strategic, managerial and operational activities involved in the gathering, processing, storing, distributing and use of information, and its associated technologies, in society and organizations.[29] The term information systems is also used to describe an organizational function that applies IS knowledge in industry, government agencies and not-for-profit organizations.[30] Information Systems often refers to the interaction between algorithmic processes and technology. This interaction can occur within or across organizational boundaries. An information system is not only the technology an organization uses, but also the way in which the organizations interact with the technology and the way in which the technology works with the organization’s business processes. Information systems are distinct from information technology (IT) in that an information system has an information technology component that interacts with the processes components.

Types of information systems

The 'classic' view of Information systems found in the textbooks[31] of the 1980s was of a pyramid of systems that reflected the hierarchy of the organization, usually transaction processing systems at the bottom of the pyramid, followed by management information systems, decision support systems and ending with executive information systems at the top. Although the pyramid model remains useful, since it was first formulated a number of new technologies have been developed and new categories of information systems have emerged, some of which no longer fit easily into the original pyramid model.

Some examples of such systems are:

Information systems career pathways

Information Systems have a number of different areas of work:

There are a wide variety of career paths in the information systems discipline. "Workers with specialized technical knowledge and strong communications skills will have the best prospects. Workers with management skills and an understanding of business practices and principles will have excellent opportunities, as companies are increasingly looking to technology to drive their revenue."[32]

Information systems development

Information technology departments in larger organizations tend to strongly influence information technology development, use, and application in the organizations, which may be a business or corporation. A series of methodologies and processes can be used in order to develop and use an information system. Many developers have turned and used a more engineering approach such as the System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) which is a systematic procedure of developing an information system through stages that occur in sequence. An Information system can be developed in house (within the organization) or outsourced. This can be accomplished by outsourcing certain components or the entire system.[33] A specific case is the geographical distribution of the development team (Offshoring, Global Information System).

A computer based information system, following a definition of Langefors,[34] is:

which can be formulated as a generalized information systems design mathematical program.

Geographic Information Systems, Land Information systems and Disaster Information Systems are also some of the emerging information systems but they can be broadly considered as Spatial Information Systems. System development is done in stages which include:

Information systems research

Information systems research is generally interdisciplinary concerned with the study of the effects of information systems on the behavior of individuals, groups, and organizations.[36][37] Hevner et al. (2004) [38] categorized research in IS into two scientific paradigms including behavioral science which is to develop and verify theories that explain or predict human or organizational behavior and design science which extends the boundaries of human and organizational capabilities by creating new and innovative artifacts.

Salvatore March and Gerald Smith [39] proposed a framework for researching different aspects of Information Technology including outputs of the research (research outputs) and activities to carry out this research (research activities). They identified research outputs as follows:

  1. Constructs which are concepts that form the vocabulary of a domain. They constitute a conceptualization used to describe problems within the domain and to specify their solutions.
  2. A model which is a set of propositions or statements expressing relationships among constructs.
  3. A method which is a set of steps (an algorithm or guideline) used to perform a task. Methods are based on a set of underlying constructs and a representation (model) of the solution space.
  4. An instantiation is the realization of an artifact in its environment.

Also research activities including:

  1. Build an artifact to perform a specific task.
  2. Evaluate the artifact to determine if any progress has been achieved.
  3. Given an artifact whose performance has been evaluated, it is important to determine why and how the artifact worked or did not work within its environment. Therefore theorize and justify theories about IT artifacts.

Although Information Systems as a discipline has been evolving for over 30 years now,[40] the core focus or identity of IS research is still subject to debate among scholars such as.[41][42][43] There are two main views around this debate: a narrow view focusing on the IT artifact as the core subject matter of IS research, and a broad view that focuses on the interplay between social and technical aspects of IT that is embedded into a dynamic evolving context.[44] A third view provided by [45] calling IS scholars to take a balanced attention for both the IT artifact and its context.

Since information systems is an applied field, industry practitioners expect information systems research to generate findings that are immediately applicable in practice. However, that is not always the case. Often information systems researchers explore behavioral issues in much more depth than practitioners would expect them to do. This may render information systems research results difficult to understand, and has led to criticism.[46]

To study an information system itself, rather than its effects, information systems models are used, such as EATPUT.

The international body of Information Systems researchers, the Association for Information Systems (AIS), and its Senior Scholars Forum Subcommittee on Journals (23 April 2007), proposed a 'basket' of journals that the AIS deems as 'excellent', and nominated: Management Information Systems Quarterly (MISQ), Information Systems Research (ISR), Journal of the Association for Information Systems (JAIS), Journal of Management Information Systems (JMIS), European Journal of Information Systems (EJIS), and Information Systems Journal (ISJ).[47]

See also

References

  1. ^ Archibald, J.A. (May 1975). "Computer Science education for majors of other disciplines". AFIPS Joint Computer Conferences: 903–906. "Computer science spreads out over several related disciplines, and shares with these disciplines certain sub-disciplines that traditionally have been located exclusively in the more conventional disciplines" 
  2. ^ Denning, Peter (July 1999). "COMPUTER SCIENCE: THE DISCIPLINE". Encyclopedia of Computer Science (2000 Edition). "The Domain of Computer Science: Even though computer science addresses both human-made and natural information processes, the main effort in the discipline has been directed toward human-made processes, especially information processing systems and machines" 
  3. ^ Coy, Wolfgang (June 2004). "Between the disciplines". ACM SIGCSE Bulletin 36 (2): 7–10. ISSN 0097-8418. "Computer science may be in the core of these processes. The actual question is not to ignore disciplinary boundaries with its methodological differences but to open the disciplines for collaborative work. We must learn to build bridges, not to start in the gap between disciplines" 
  4. ^ Hoganson, Ken (December 2001). "Alternative curriculum models for integrating computer science and information systems analysis, recommendations, pitfalls, opportunities, accreditations, and trends". Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges 17 (2): 313–325. ISSN 1937-4771. "... Information Systems grew out of the need to bridge the gap between business management and computer science ..." 
  5. ^ Davis, Timothy; Geist, Robert; Matzko, Sarah; Westall, James (March 2004). "τ´εχνη: A First Step". Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education: 125–129. ISBN 1-58113-798-2. "In 1999, Clemson University established a (graduate) degree program that bridges the arts and the sciences... All students in the program are required to complete graduate level work in both the arts and computer science" 
  6. ^ Hoganson, Ken (December 2001). "Alternative curriculum models for integrating computer science and information systems analysis, recommendations, pitfalls, opportunities, accreditations, and trends". Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges 17 (2): 313–325. ISSN 1937-4771. "The field of information systems as a separate discipline is relatively new and is undergoing continuous change as technology evolves and the field matures" 
  7. ^ Khazanchi, Deepak; Bjorn Erik Munkvold (Summer 2000). "Is information system a science? an inquiry into the nature of the information systems discipline". ACM SIGMIS Database 31 (3): 24–42. doi:10.1145/381823.381834. ISSN 0095-0033. "From this we have concluded that IS is a science, i.e., a scientific discipline in contrast to purportedly non-scientific fields" 
  8. ^ Denning, Peter (June 2007). Ubiquity a new interview with Peter Denning on the great principles of computing. 2007. pp. 1–1. "People from other fields are saying they have discovered information processes in their deepest structures and that collaboration with computing is essential to them." 
  9. ^ "Computer science is the study of computation." Computer Science Department, College of Saint Benedict, Saint John's University
  10. ^ "Computer Science is the study of all aspects of computer systems, from the theoretical foundations to the very practical aspects of managing large software projects." Massey University
  11. ^ Kelly, Sue; Gibson, Nicola; Holland, Christopher; Light, Ben (July 1999). "Focus Issue on Legacy Information Systems and Business Process Engineering: a Business Perspective of Legacy Information Systems". Communications of the AIS 2 (7): 1–27. 
  12. ^ Pearson Custom Publishing & West Chester University, Custom Program for Computer Information Systems (CSC 110), (Pearson Custom Publishing, 2009) Glossary p. 694
  13. ^ Jessup, Leonard M.; Joseph S. Valacich (2008). Information Systems Today (3rd ed.). Pearson Publishing. Pages ??? & Glossary p. 416
  14. ^ Polack, Jennifer (December 2009). "Planning a CIS Education Within a CS Framework". Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges 25 (2): 100–106. ISSN 1937-4771. 
  15. ^ Hayes, Helen; Onkar Sharma (February 2003). "A decade of experience with a common first year program for computer science, information systems and information technology majors". Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges 18 (3): 217–227. ISSN 1937-4771. "In 1988, a degree program in Computer Information Systems (CIS) was launched with the objective of providing an option for students who were less inclined to become programmers and were more interested in learning to design, develop, and implement Information Systems, and solve business problems using the systems approach" 
  16. ^ CSTA Committee, Allen Tucker, et alia, A Model Curriculum for K-12 Computer Science (Final Report), (Association for Computing Machinery, Inc., 2006) Abstraction & p. 2
  17. ^ Freeman, Peter; Hart, David (August 2004). "A Science of Design for Software-Intensive Systems Computer science and engineering needs an intellectually rigorous, analytical, teachable design process to ensure development of systems we all can live with.". Communications of the ACM 47 (8): 19–21. ISSN 0001-0782. "Though the other components' connections to the software and their role in the overall design of the system are critical, the core consideration for a software-intensive system is the software itself, and other approaches to systematizing design have yet to solve the "software problem"—which won't be solved until software design is understood scientifically" 
  18. ^ History of Computer Science
  19. ^ Kelly, Sue; Gibson, Nicola; Holland, Christopher; Light, Ben (July 1999). "Focus Issue on Legacy Information Systems and Business Process Engineering: a Business Perspective of Legacy Information Systems". Communications of the AIS 2 (7): 1–27. 
  20. ^ "Scoping the Discipline of Information Systems"
  21. ^ Rockart et al. (1996) Eight imperatives for the new IT organization Sloan Management review.
  22. ^ Mark S. Silver, M. Lynne Markus, Cynthia Mathis Beath (1995) The Information Technology Interaction Model: A Foundation for the MBA Core Course, MIS Quarterly, Vol. 19, No. 3, Special Issue on IS Curricula and Pedagogy (Sep., 1995), pp. 361-390
  23. ^ Culnan, M. J. Mapping the Intellectual Structure of MIS, 1980-1985: A Co-Citation Analysis, MIS Quarterly, 1987, pp. 341-353.
  24. ^ Keen, P. G. W. MIS Research: Reference Disciplines and A Cumulative Tradition, in Proceedings of the First International Conference on Information Systems, E. McLean (ed.), Philadelphia, PA, 1980, pp. 9-18.
  25. ^ Lee, A. S. Architecture as A Reference Discipline for MIS, in Information Systems Research: Contemporary Approaches and Emergent Traditions, H.-E. Nissen, H. K. Klein, and R. A. Hirschheim (eds.), North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1991, pp. 573-592.
  26. ^ Mingers, J., and Stowell, F. (eds.). Information Systems: An Emerging Discipline?, McGraw- Hill, London, 1997.
  27. ^ John, W., and Joe, P. (2002) "Strategic Planning for Information System." 3rd Ed. West Sussex. John wiley & Sons Ltd
  28. ^ "Scoping the Discipline of Information Systems"
  29. ^ "Scoping the Discipline of Information Systems"
  30. ^ "Scoping the Discipline of Information Systems"
  31. ^ Laudon, K.C. and Laudon, J.P. Management Information Systems, (2nd edition), Macmillan, 1988.
  32. ^ Sloan Career Cornerstone Center (2008). Information Systems. Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. Access date June 2, 2008.
  33. ^ Using MIS. Kroenke. 2009. ISBN 0-13-713029-5. 
  34. ^ Börje Langefors (1973). Theoretical Analysis of Information Systems. Auerbach. ISBN 0-87769-151-7. 
  35. ^ Computer Studies. Frederick Nyawaya. 2008. ISBN 9966-781-24-2. 
  36. ^ Galliers, R.D., Markus, M.L., & Newell, S. (Eds) (2006). Exploring Information Systems Research Approaches. New York, NY: Routledge.
  37. ^ Ciborra, C. (2002). The Labyrinths of Information: Challenging the Wisdom of Systems. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press
  38. ^ Hevner, March, Park & Ram (2004): Design Science in Information Systems Research. MIS Quarterly, 28(1), 75-105.
  39. ^ March S., Smith G. (1995) Design and natural science in Information Technology (IT), Decision Support Systems, Vol. 15, pp. 251- 266.
  40. ^ Avgerou, C. (2000): Information systems: what sort of science is it? Omega, 28, 567-579.
  41. ^ Benbasat, I., Zmud, R. (2003): The identity crisis within the IS discipline: defining and communicating the discipline’s core properties, MIS Quarterly, 27(2), 183-194.
  42. ^ Agarwal, R., Lucas, H. (2005): The information systems identity crisis: focusing on high- visibility and high-impact research, MIS Quarterly, 29(3), 381-398.
  43. ^ El Sawy, O. (2003): The IS core –IX: The 3 faces of IS identity: connection, immersion, and fusion. Communications of AIS, 12, 588-598.
  44. ^ Mansour, O., Ghazawneh, A. (2009) Research in Information Systems: Implications of the constant changing nature of IT capabilities in the social computing era, in Molka-Danielsen, J. (Ed.): Proceedings of the 32nd Information Systems Research Seminar in Scandinavia, IRIS 32, Inclusive Design, Molde University College, Molde, Norway, August 9–12, 2009. ISBN 978-82-7962-120-1.
  45. ^ Orlikowski, W., Iacono, C. (2001): Research commentary: desperately seeking the “IT” in IT research—a call to theorizing about the IT artifact. Information Systems Research, 12(2), 121-134.
  46. ^ Kock, N., Gray, P., Hoving, R., Klein, H., Myers, M., & Rockart, J. (2002). Information Systems Research Relevance Revisited: Subtle Accomplishment, Unfulfilled Promise, or Serial Hypocrisy? Communications of the Association for Information Systems, 8(23), 330-346.
  47. ^ Senior Scholars (2007) AIS Senior Scholars Forum Subcommittee on Journals: A baseket of six (or eight) A* journals in Information Systems Archived at http://home.aisnet.org/associations/7499/files/Senior%20Scholars%20Letter.pdf.

Further reading

External links

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